Koch F, Heuer T, Krems C, Claupein E. Meat consumers and non-meat consumers in Germany: a characterisation based on results of the German National Nutrition Survey II. J Nutr Sci. 2019;8:e21. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S204867901900017X/type/journal_article.
Google Scholar
Wozniak H, Larpin C, de Mestral C, Guessous I, Reny JL, Stringhini S. Vegetarian, pescatarian and flexitarian diets: sociodemographic determinants and association with cardiovascular risk factors in a Swiss urban population. Br J Nutr. 2020;124(8):844–52. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7525113/.
Google Scholar
Malek L, Umberger WJ. Distinguishing meat reducers from unrestricted omnivores, vegetarians and vegans: a comprehensive comparison of Australian consumers. Food Qual Prefer. 2021;88:104081. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0950329320303505.
Google Scholar
Neff RA, Edwards D, Palmer A, Ramsing R, Righter A, Wolfson J. Reducing meat consumption in the USA: a nationally representative survey of attitudes and behaviours. Public Health Nutr. 2018;21(10):1835–44. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/reducing-meat-consumption-in-the-usa-a-nationally-representative-survey-of-attitudes-and-behaviours/D54CE3E1F9F8837EA87250E8781C0EDA.
Google Scholar
Springmann M, Wiebe K, Mason-D’Croz D, Sulser TB, Rayner M, Scarborough P. Health and nutritional aspects of sustainable diet strategies and their association with environmental impacts: a global modelling analysis with country-level detail. Lancet Planet Health. 2018;2(10):e451-61.
Google Scholar
Papier K, Tong TY, Appleby PN, Bradbury KE, Fensom GK, Knuppel A, et al. Comparison of major protein-source foods and other food groups in meat-eaters and non-meat-eaters in the EPIC-Oxford cohort. Nutrients. 2019;11(4):824.
Google Scholar
Dagevos H. Finding flexitarians: current studies on meat eaters and meat reducers. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2021;114:530–9. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924224421003952.
Google Scholar
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung e. V. 10 Regeln der DGE für eine vollwertige Ernährung überarbeitet. 2017. https://www.dge.de/ernaehrungspraxis/vollwertige-ernaehrung/10-regeln-der-dge/.
Willett W, Rockström J, Loken B, Springmann M, Lang T, Vermeulen S, et al. Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Lancet. 2019;393(10170):447–92. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31788-4.
Google Scholar
Montagnese C, Santarpia L, Buonifacio M, Nardelli A, Caldara AR, Silvestri E, et al. European food-based dietary guidelines: a comparison and update. Nutrition. 2015;31(7):908–15. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0899900715000076.
Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. 8th edition. 2015–2020 dietary guidelines for Americans. https://health.gov/our-work/food-nutrition/previous-dietary-guidelines/2015.
Schüpbach R, Wegmüller R, Berguerand C, Bui M, Herter-Aeberli I. Micronutrient status and intake in omnivores, vegetarians and vegans in Switzerland. Eur J Nutr. 2017;56(1):283–93.
Google Scholar
Craig WJ. Nutrition concerns and health effects of vegetarian diets. Nutr Clin Pract. 2010;25(6):613–20. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0884533610385707.
Google Scholar
Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: vegetarian diets. Can J Diet Pract Res. 2003;64(2):62–81. https://dcjournal.ca/doi/10.3148/64.2.2003.62.
Neufingerl N, Eilander A. Nutrient intake and status in adults consuming plant-based diets compared to meat-eaters: a systematic review. Nutrients. 2021;14(1):29. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8746448/.
Google Scholar
Pawlak R, Lester SE, Babatunde T. The prevalence of cobalamin deficiency among vegetarians assessed by serum vitamin B12: a review of literature. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2014;68(5):541–8. https://www.nature.com/articles/ejcn201446.
Google Scholar
Davey GK, Spencer EA, Appleby PN, Allen NE, Knox KH, Key TJ. EPIC-Oxford: lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort of 33 883 meat-eaters and 31 546 non-meat-eaters in the UK. Public Health Nutr. 2003;6(3):259–69.
Google Scholar
Kwaśniewska M, Pikala M, Grygorczuk O, Waśkiewicz A, Stepaniak U, Pająk A, et al. Dietary antioxidants, quality of nutrition and cardiovascular characteristics among omnivores, flexitarians and vegetarians in Poland—the results of multicenter national representative survey WOBASZ. Antioxidants. 2023;12(2):222. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3921/12/2/222.
Google Scholar
Dawczynski C, Weidauer T, Richert C, Schlattmann P, Dawczynski K, Kiehntopf M. Nutrient intake and nutrition status in vegetarians and vegans in comparison to omnivores – the Nutritional Evaluation (NuEva) study. Front Nutr. 2022;9:819106. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2022.819106.
Google Scholar
Groufh-Jacobsen S, Larsson C, Daele WV, Margerison C, Mulkerrins I, Aasland LM, et al. Food literacy and diet quality in young vegans, lacto-ovo vegetarians, pescatarians, flexitarians and omnivores. Public Health Nutr. 2023:1–26. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/food-literacy-and-diet-quality-in-young-vegans-lactoovo-vegetarians-pescatarians-flexitarians-and-omnivores/5F9C632866AB180435D84BC49F73FCBC.
von Elm E, Altman DG, Egger M, Pocock SJ, Gøtzsche PC, Vandenbroucke JP. The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies. J Clin Epidemiol. 2008;61(4):344–9. https://www.jclinepi.com/article/S0895-4356(07)00436-2.
Google Scholar
Bruns A, Mueller M, Schneider I, Hahn A. Application of a modified healthy eating index (HEI-Flex) to compare the diet quality of flexitarians, vegans and omnivores in Germany. Nutrients. 2022;14(15):3038. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9330316/.
Google Scholar
Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung RM Kritische Infrastruktur Landwirtschaft, Bonn. Bericht zur Markt- und Versorgungslage Fleisch 2018. 2018. https://www.ble.de/DE/BZL/Daten-Berichte/Fleisch/fleisch_node.html.
Agricultural output – meat consumption – OECD data. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Per capita meat consumption in the EU28. http://data.oecd.org/agroutput/meat-consumption.htm.
Frey I, Berg A, Grathwohl D, Keul J. Freiburger Fragebogen zur körperlichen Aktivität-Entwicklung. Prüfung und Anwendung Soz Präventivmed. 1999;44(2):55–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01667127.
Google Scholar
Eknoyan G. Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874)—the average man and indices of obesity. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008;23(1):47–51. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfm517.
Google Scholar
Fedosov SN, Brito A, Miller JW, Green R, Allen LH. Combined indicator of vitamin B12 status: modification for missing biomarkers and folate status and recommendations for revised cut-points. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2015;53(8):1215–25.
Google Scholar
DGE – ÖGE – SGE. D-A-C-H-Referenzwerte für die Nährstoffzufuhr. 2019. https://www.dge.de/wissenschaft/referenzwerte/gesamt/.
European Food Safety Authority E. www.efsa.europa.eu. 2019. Dietary reference values for the EU. https://multimedia.efsa.europa.eu/drvs/index.htm.
de Benoist B. Conclusions of a WHO Technical Consultation on folate and vitamin B12 deficiencies. Food Nutr Bull. 2008;29:S238–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265080292S129.
Google Scholar
Herrmann W, Schorr H, Bodis M, Knapp JP, Müller A, Stein G, et al. Role of homocysteine, cystathionine and methylmalonic acid measurement for diagnosis of vitamin deficiency in high-aged subjects. Eur J Clin Invest. 2000;30(12):1083–9.
Google Scholar
Herrmann W, Obeid R, Schorr H, Geisel J. Functional vitamin B12 deficiency and determination of holotranscobalamin in populations at risk. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2003;41(11):1478–88.
Google Scholar
Hvas AM, Nexo E. Holotranscobalamin as a predictor of vitamin B12 status. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2003;41(11):1489–92.
Google Scholar
Malinow MR, Bostom AG, Krauss RM. Homocyst(e)ine, diet, and cardiovascular diseases: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Nutrition Committee, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1999;99(1):178–82.
Google Scholar
Obersby D, Chappell DC, Dunnett A, Tsiami AA. Plasma total homocysteine status of vegetarians compared with omnivores: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Nutr. 2013;109(5):785–94.
Google Scholar
Lips P, Cashman KD, Lamberg-Allardt C, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Obermayer-Pietsch B, Bianchi ML, et al. Current vitamin D status in European and Middle East countries and strategies to prevent vitamin D deficiency: a position statement of the European Calcified Tissue Society. Eur J Endocrinol. 2019;180(4):P23-54. https://eje.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/eje/180/4/EJE-18-0736.xml.
Google Scholar
Amrein K, Scherkl M, Hoffmann M, Neuwersch-Sommeregger S, Köstenberger M, Tmava Berisha A, et al. Vitamin D deficiency 2.0: an update on the current status worldwide. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2020;74(11):1498–513. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7091696/.
Google Scholar
Gellert S, Ströhle A, Bitterlich N, Hahn A. Higher prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in German pregnant women compared to non-pregnant women. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2017;296(1):43–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00404-017-4398-5.
Google Scholar
Maretzke F, Bechthold A, Egert S, Ernst JB, Melo van Lent D, Pilz S, et al. Role of vitamin D in preventing and treating selected extraskeletal diseases—an umbrella review. Nutrients. 2020;12(4):969. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7231149/.
Google Scholar
Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, Del Valle HB. Institute of Medicine (US) Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium. Dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2011. (The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK56070/.
Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Gordon CM, Hanley DA, Heaney RP, et al. Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(7):1911–30.
Google Scholar
World Health Organization, Department of Nutrition for Health and Development (NHD). Serum and red blood cell folate concentrations for assessing folate status in populations. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/75584/WHO_NMH_NHD_EPG_12.1_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. 2012.
World Health Organization, UNICEF, United Nations University. Iron deficiency anaemia: assessment, prevention and control: a guide for programme managers. 2001. https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/iron-children-6to23–archived-iron-deficiency-anaemia-assessment-prevention-and-control.
Yalla N, Bobba G, Guo G, Stankiewicz A, Ostlund R. Parathyroid hormone reference ranges in healthy individuals classified by vitamin D status. J Endocrinol Invest. 2019;42(11):1353–60. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6790182/.
Google Scholar
Thomas L, Herrmann W, Obeid R. Labor und Diagnose, 10. Auflage, Release 4. 2022. https://www.clinical-laboratory-diagnostics.com/.
Pagana KD, Pagana TJ, Pagana TN. Mosby’s® diagnostic and laboratory test reference. 15th ed. Elsevier; 2020. ISBN: 9780323675215. https://evolve.elsevier.com.
Nebl J, Schuchardt JP, Ströhle A, Wasserfurth P, Haufe S, Eigendorf J, et al. Micronutrient status of recreational runners with vegetarian or non-vegetarian dietary patterns. Nutrients. 2019;11(5):1146.
Google Scholar
Elorinne AL, Alfthan G, Erlund I, Kivimäki H, Paju A, Salminen I, et al. Food and nutrient intake and nutritional status of Finnish vegans and non-vegetarians. PLoS One. 2016;11(2):e0148235. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4739591/.
Google Scholar
Weikert C, Trefflich I, Menzel J, Obeid R, Longree A, Dierkes J, et al. Vitamin and mineral status in a vegan diet. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2020;117(35–36):575–82. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7779846/.
Google Scholar
Clarys P, Deliens T, Huybrechts I, Deriemaeker P, Vanaelst B, De Keyzer W, et al. Comparison of nutritional quality of the vegan, vegetarian, semi-vegetarian, pesco-vegetarian and omnivorous diet. Nutrients. 2014;6(3):1318–32.
Google Scholar
Kristensen NB, Madsen ML, Hansen TH, Allin KH, Hoppe C, Fagt S, et al. Intake of macro- and micronutrients in Danish vegans. Nutr J. 2015;14:115. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4628270/.
Google Scholar
Allès B, Baudry J, Méjean C, Touvier M, Péneau S, Hercberg S, et al. Comparison of sociodemographic and nutritional characteristics between self-reported vegetarians, vegans, and meat-eaters from the NutriNet-Santé study. Nutrients. 2017;9(9):1023.
Google Scholar
Vollmer I. Vegan diet: utilization of dietary supplements and fortified foods. An internet-based survey. Ernährungs Umschau. 2018;65(9):144–53. https://doi.org/10.4455/eu.2018.030.
Google Scholar
Kuszak AJ, Hopp DC, Williamson JS, Betz JM, Sorkin BC. Approaches by the US National Institutes of Health to support rigorous scientific research on dietary supplements and natural products. Drug Test Anal. 2016;8(3–4):413–7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6661901/.
Google Scholar
Reynolds AN, Akerman A, Kumar S, Diep Pham HT, Coffey S, Mann J. Dietary fibre in hypertension and cardiovascular disease management: systematic review and meta-analyses. BMC Med. 2022;20(1):139. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-022-02328-x.
Google Scholar
Institute of Medicine (US) Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes and its Panel on Folate, Other B Vitamins, and Choline. Dietary reference intakes for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, and choline. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1998. (The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK114310/.
Robert Koch-Institut. Folatversorgung in Deutschland. 2016. https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/2490.2.
Pfeiffer CM, Sternberg MR, Zhang M, Fazili Z, Storandt RJ, Crider KS, et al. Folate status in the US population 20 y after the introduction of folic acid fortification. Am J Clin Nutr. 2019;110(5):1088–97. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6821545/.
Google Scholar
Shere M, Bapat P, Nickel C, Kapur B, Koren G. Association between use of oral contraceptives and folate status: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2015;37(5):430–8. https://www.jogc.com/article/S1701-2163(15)30258-9/.
Google Scholar
Green R, Allen LH, Bjørke-Monsen AL, Brito A, Guéant JL, Miller JW, et al. Vitamin B12 deficiency. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2017;3(1):1–20. https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201740.
Woo KS, Kwok TCY, Celermajer DS. Vegan diet, subnormal vitamin B-12 status and cardiovascular health. Nutrients. 2014;6(8):3259–73. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4145307/.
Google Scholar
Marrone G, Guerriero C, Palazzetti D, Lido P, Marolla A, Di Daniele F, et al. Vegan diet health benefits in metabolic syndrome. Nutrients. 2021;13(3):817. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7999488/.
Google Scholar
Mądry E, Lisowska A, Grebowiec P, Walkowiak J. The impact of vegan diet on B-12 status in healthy omnivores: five-year prospective study. Acta Sci Pol Technol Aliment. 2012;11(2):209–12.
Google Scholar
Nexo E, Hoffmann-Lücke E. Holotranscobalamin, a marker of vitamin B-12 status: analytical aspects and clinical utility. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;94(1):359S-365S. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3127504/.
Google Scholar
Fedosov SN. Biochemical markers of vitamin B12 deficiency combined in one diagnostic parameter: the age-dependence and association with cognitive function and blood hemoglobin. Clin Chim Acta. 2013;422:47–53. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009898113001368.
Google Scholar
Campos AJ, Risch L, Nydegger U, Wiesner J, Dyck MVV, Seger C, et al. Diagnostic characteristics of 3-parameter and 2-parameter equations for the calculation of a combined indicator of vitamin B12 status to predict cobalamin deficiency in a large mixed patient population. Clin Lab. 2020;66(10). https://doi.org/10.7754/Clin.Lab.2020.200130.
Valente E, Scott JM, Ueland PM, Cunningham C, Casey M, Molloy AM. Diagnostic accuracy of holotranscobalamin, methylmalonic acid, serum cobalamin, and other indicators of tissue vitamin B12 status in the elderly. Clin Chem. 2011;57(6):856–63. https://doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2010.158154.
Google Scholar
Hannibal L, Lysne V, Bjørke-Monsen AL, Behringer S, Grünert SC, Spiekerkoetter U, et al. Biomarkers and algorithms for the diagnosis of vitamin B12 deficiency. Front Mol Biosci. 2016;3:27. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4921487/.
Google Scholar
Obeid R, Herrmann W. Holotranscobalamin in laboratory diagnosis of cobalamin deficiency compared to total cobalamin and methylmalonic acid. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2007;45(12):1746–50. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/CCLM.2007.361/html.
Google Scholar
Weaver CM, Alexander DD, Boushey CJ, Dawson-Hughes B, Lappe JM, LeBoff MS, et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and risk of fractures: an updated meta-analysis from the National Osteoporosis Foundation. Osteoporos Int. 2016;27(1):367–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-015-3386-5.
Google Scholar
Vannucci L, Fossi C, Quattrini S, Guasti L, Pampaloni B, Gronchi G, et al. Calcium intake in bone health: a focus on calcium-rich mineral waters. Nutrients. 2018;10(12):1930. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6316542/.
Google Scholar
Mangels AR. Bone nutrients for vegetarians. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;100:469S-475S. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002916523048980.
Google Scholar
Prietl B, Treiber G, Pieber TR, Amrein K. Vitamin D and immune function. Nutrients. 2013;5(7):2502–21. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/5/7/2502.
Google Scholar
Charoenngam N, Holick MF. Immunologic effects of vitamin D on human health and disease. Nutrients. 2020;12(7):2097. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/12/7/2097.
Google Scholar
Souberbielle JC, Body JJ, Lappe JM, Plebani M, Shoenfeld Y, Wang TJ, et al. Vitamin D and musculoskeletal health, cardiovascular disease, autoimmunity and cancer: recommendations for clinical practice. Autoimmun Rev. 2010;9(11):709–15. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1568997210001278.
Google Scholar
Lehmann U, Gjessing HR, Hirche F, Mueller-Belecke A, Gudbrandsen OA, Ueland PM, et al. Efficacy of fish intake on vitamin D status: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials12. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;102(4):837–47. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002916523137087.
Google Scholar
Rabenberg M, Scheidt-Nave C, Busch MA, Rieckmann N, Hintzpeter B, Mensink GBM. Vitamin D status among adults in Germany – results from the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Adults (DEGS1). BMC Public Health. 2015;15:641. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4499202/.
Google Scholar
Pilz S, März W, Cashman KD, Kiely ME, Whiting SJ, Holick MF, et al. Rationale and plan for vitamin D food fortification: a review and guidance paper. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2018;9:373. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6056629/.
Google Scholar
Aoun A, Maalouf J, Fahed M, El Jabbour F. When and how to diagnose and treat vitamin D deficiency in adults: a practical and clinical update. J Diet Suppl. 2020;17(3):336–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/19390211.2019.1577935.
Google Scholar
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). Dietary reference values for vitamin D. EFSA J. 2016;14(10):e04547. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4547.
Google Scholar
German Nutrition Society, Bonn, Germany. New reference values for vitamin D. Ann Nutr Metab. 2012;60(4):241–6. https://www.karger.com/Article/.
Google Scholar